Seminars in Oncology
Volume 30, Issue 6 , Pages 763-775 , December 2003

Osteopenia and osteoporosis in women with breast cancer

  • Bhuvaneswari Ramaswamy

      Affiliations

    • Department of Medicine, Ohio State University Medical Center and Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, OH, USA
  • ,
  • Charles L Shapiro

      Affiliations

    • Department of Medicine, Ohio State University Medical Center and Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, OH, USA
    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress reprint requests to Charles L. Shapiro, MD, Associate Professor of Medicine, Director of Breast Medical Oncology, Ohio State University Medical Center and Comprehensive Cancer Center, Starling-Loving Hall, Room B405, 320 W 10th St, Columbus, OH 43210, USA

References 

  1. Osborne CK, Hobbs K, Clark GM. Effect of estrogens and antiestrogens on growth of human breast cancer cells in athymic nude mice. Cancer Res. 1985;45:584–590
  2. Spicer DV, Pike MC. Sex steroids and breast cancer prevention. J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr. 1994;16:139–147
  3. Bernstein L, Ross RK. Endogenous hormones and breast cancer risk. Epidemiol Rev. 1993;15:48–65
  4. Butler LM, Potischman NA, Newnman B, et al.  Menstrual risk factors and early-onset breast cancer. Cancer Causes Control. 2000;11:451–458
  5. Endogenous Hormones and Breast Cancer Collaborative Group . Endogenous sex hormones and breast cancer in postmenopausal women (Reanalysis of nine prospective studies). J Natl Cancer Inst. 2002;94:606–616
  6. Hankinson SE, Willett WC, Manson JE, et al.  Plasma sex steroid hormone levels and risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1998;90:1292–1299
  7. Rossouw JE, Harlan WR. Postmenopausal estrogen and the risk of breast cancer (The need for randomized trials). Ann Epidemiol. 1994;4:255–256
  8. Newcomb PA, Titus-Ernstoff L, Egan KM, et al.  Postmenopausal estrogen and progestin use in relation to breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2002;11:593–600
  9. Nelson HD, et al.  Postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy (Scientific review). JAMA. 2002;288:872–881
  10. Kirsh V, Kreiger N. Estrogen and estrogen-progestin replacement therapy and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer in Canada. Cancer Causes Control. 2002;13:583–590
  11. Lindsay R, Hart DM, Forrest C, et al.  Prevention of spinal osteoporosis in oophorectomised women. Lancet. 1980;2:1151–1154
  12. Prior JC, Vigna YM, Schechter MT, et al.  Spinal bone loss and ovulatory disturbances. N Engl J Med. 1990;323:1221–1227
  13. Shapiro CL. Bisphosphonates in breast cancer patients with skeletal metastases. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 1994;8:153–163
  14. Kenny AM, Raisz LG. Mechanisms of bone remodeling (Implications for clinical practice). J Reprod Med. 2002;47(suppl 1):63–70
  15. Lories RJ, Luyten FP. Osteoprotegerin and osteoprotegerin-ligand balance (A new paradigm in bone metabolism providing new therapeutic targets). Clin Rheumatol. 2001;20:3–9
  16. Hofbauer LC, Heufelder AE. Role of receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappaB ligand and osteoprotegerin in bone cell biology. J Mol Med. 2001;79:243–253
  17. Kong YY, Penninger JM. Molecular control of bone remodeling and osteoporosis. Exp Gerontol. 2000;35:947–956
  18. Hofbauer LC, Neubauer A, Heufelder AE. Receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappaB ligand and osteoprotegerin (Potential implications for the pathogenesis and treatment of malignant bone diseases). Cancer. 2001;92:460–470
  19. Bord S, Ireland DC, Beavan SR, et al.  The effects of estrogen on osteoprotegerin, RANKL, and estrogen receptor expression in human osteoblasts. Bone. 2003;32:136–141
  20. Ikeda T, Utsuyama M, Hirokawa K. Expression profiles of receptor activator of nuclear factor kappaB ligand, receptor activator of nuclear factor kappaB, and osteoprotegerin messenger RNA in aged and ovariectomized rat bones. J Bone Miner Res. 2001;16:1416–1425
  21. Hofbauer LC, Khosla S, Dunstan CR, et al.  Estrogen stimulates gene expression and protein production of osteoprotegerin in human osteoblastic cells. Endocrinology. 1999;140:4367–4370
  22. Aubin JE, Bonnelye E. Osteoprotegerin and its ligand (A new paradigm for regulation of osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption). Osteoporos Int. 2000;11:905–913
  23. Fentiman IS, Fogelman I. Breast cancer and osteoporosis (A bridge at last). Eur J Cancer. 1993;29A:485–486
  24. Fentiman IS, Howell A, Hamed H, et al.  Bone density of normal women in relation to endogenous and exogenous oestrogens. Br J Rheumatol. 1994;33:808–815
  25. Zhang Y, Mcalindon TE, Hannan MT, et al.  Bone mass and the risk of breast cancer among postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med. 1997;336:611–617
  26. Kuller LH, Cauley JA, Lucas L, et al.  Sex steroid hormones, bone mineral density, and risk of breast cancer. Environ Health Perspect. 1997;105(suppl 3):593–599
  27. Study of Osteoporotic Fractures Research Group Lucas FL, Cauley JA, Stone RA, et al.  Bone mineral density and risk of breast cancer (differences by family history of breast cancer). Am J Epidemiol. 1998;148:22–29
  28. Nguyen T, Center J, Eisman J. Association between breast cancer and bone mineral density (The Dubbo Osteoporosis Epidemiology Study). Maturitas. 2000;36:27–34
  29. Buist D, La Croix AZ, Barlow WE, et al.  Bone mineral density and breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women. J Clin Epidemiol. 2001;54:417–422
  30. Study of Osteoporotic Fractures Research Group Cauley JA, Lucas FL, Kuller LH, et al.  Bone mineral density and risk of breast cancer in older women (The study of osteoporotic fractures). JAMA. 1996;276:1404–1408
  31. Zmuda J, Cauley JA, Ljung BM, et al.  Bone mass and breast cancer risk in older women (Differences by stage at diagnosis). J Natl Cancer Inst. 2001;93:930–936
  32. Nelson RL, Turyk M, Kim J, et al.  Bone mineral density and the subsequent risk of cancer in the NHANES I follow-up cohort. Bio Med Central Cancer. 2002;2:22
  33. Van der Klift M, Laet CE, Coebug JW, et al.  Bone mineral density and the risk of breast cancer (The Rotterdam Study). Bone. 2003;32:211–216
  34. Persson I, Adami HO, McLaughlin JK, et al.  Reduced risk of breast and endometrial cancer among women with hip fractures (Sweden). Cancer Causes Control. 1994;5:523–528
  35. Newcomb PA, Trentham-Dietz A, Egam KM, et al.  Fracture history and risk of breast and endometrial cancer. Am J Epidemiol. 2001;153:1071–1078
  36. Lane JM, Russell L, Khan SN. Osteoporosis. Clin Orthop Rel Res. 2000;372:139–150
  37. Osteoporosis (Review of the evidence for prevention, diagnosis and treatment and cost-effectiveness analysis. Executive summary). Osteoporosis Int. 1998;8(suppl 4):3–6
  38. Osteoporosis prevention, diagnosis, and therapy. NIH Consensus Statement. 2000;17:1–45
  39. Ralston SH. Genetic control of susceptibility to osteoporosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87: 2460–246
  40. Pols HA, Uitterlinden AG. Genetic polymorphisms and clinical practice (The example of osteoporosis). Acta Clin Belg. 2002;57:266–270
  41. Roux S. The genetics of osteoporosis. Joint Bone Spine. 2001;68:482–486
  42. Early Breast Cancer Trialists’ Collaborative Group . Polychemotherapy for early breast cancer (An overview of the randomised trials). Lancet. 2000;355:1757–1770
  43. Consensus conference 2000 . Adjuvant therapy for breast cancer (National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference Statement November 1–3, 2000). Cancer Control. 2001;8:55
  44. Mincey BA, Palmieri FM, Perez EA. Adjuvant therapy for breast cancer (Recommendations for management based on consensus review and recent clinical trials). Oncologist. 2002;7:246–250
  45. Goldhirsch A, Glick JH, Gelber RD, et al.  Meeting highlights: International Consensus Panel on the Treatment of Primary Breast Cancer: Seventh International Conference on Adjuvant Therapy of Primary Breast Cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2001;19:3817–3827
  46. Shapiro C, Recht A. Side effects of adjuvant treatment of breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:1997–2008
  47. Damewood MD, Grochow LB. Prospects for fertility after chemotherapy or radiation for neoplastic disease. Fertil Steril. 1986;45:443–459
  48. Warne GL, Fairley KF, Hobbs JB, et al.  Cyclophosphamide-induced ovarian failure. N Engl J Med. 1973;289:1159–1162
  49. Lower EE, Blau R, Gasder P, et al.  The risk of premature menopause induced by chemotherapy for early breast cancer. J Womens Health Gender Based Med. 1999;8:949–954
  50. Shapiro C, Manola J, Leboff M. Ovarian failure after adjuvant chemotherapy is associated with rapid bone loss in women with early-stage breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2001;19:3306–3311
  51. Reichman BS, Green KB. Breast cancer in young women (effect of chemotherapy on ovarian function, fertility, and birth defects). J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr. 1994;16:125–129
  52. Bines J, Oleske DM, Cobleigh MA. Ovarian function in premenopausal women treated with adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 1996;14:1718–1729
  53. Goodwin PJ, Ennis M, Pritchard KI, et al.  Risk of menopause during the first year after breast cancer diagnosis. J Clin Oncol. 1999;17:2365–2370
  54. Mehta RR, Beattie CW, Das Gupta TK. Endocrine profile in breast cancer patients receiving chemotherapy. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 1992;20:125–132
  55. Dnistrian AM, Schwartz MK, Fracchia AA, et al.  Endocrine consequences of CMF adjuvant therapy in premenopausal and postmenopausal breast cancer patients. Cancer. 1983;51:803–807
  56. Canellos GP, Devita VT, Whang-Peng J, et al.  Combination chemotherapy for advanced breast cancer (Response and effect on survival). Ann Intern Med. 1976;84:389–392
  57. Bonadonna G, Valagussa P, Moliterni A, et al.  Adjuvant cyclophosphamide, methotrexate, and fluorouracil in node-positive breast cancer (The results of 20 years of follow-up). N Engl J Med. 1995;332:901–906
  58. Buzdar AU, Blumenchein GR, Gutterman JU, et al.  Postoperative adjuvant chemotherapy with fluorouracil, doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide, and BCG vaccine. A follow-up report. JAMA. 1979;242:1509–1513
  59. Koyama H, et al.  Cyclophosphamide-induced ovarian failure and its therapeutic significance in patients with breast cancer. Cancer. 1977;39:1403–1409
  60. Fisher B, Anderson S, Wickerman DL, et al.  Increased intensification and total dose of cyclophosphamide in a doxorubicin-cyclophosphamide regimen for the treatment of primary breast cancer (Findings from National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project B-22). J Clin Oncol. 1997;15:1858–1869
  61. Fisher B, Anderson S, DeCillis A, et al.  Further evaluation of intensified and increased total dose of cyclophosphamide for the treatment of primary breast cancer (Findings from National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project B-25). J Clin Oncol. 1999;17:3374–3388
  62. Citron ML, Berry DA, Cirrincione C, et al.  Randomized trial of dose-dense versus conventionally scheduled and sequential versus concurrent combination chemotherapy as postoperative adjuvant treatment of node-positive primary breast cancer (First report of Intergroup trial C9741/Cancer and Leukemia Group B trial 9741). J Clin Oncol. 2003;21:1431–1439
  63. Henderson IC, Berry DA, Demetri GD, et al.  Improved outcomes from adding sequential paclitaxel but not from escalating doxorubicin dose in an adjuvant chemotherapy regimen for patients with node-positive primary breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2003;21:976–983
  64. Fornier MN, Modi S, Hudis CA, et al.  MHSHC (Incidence of amenorrhea (A) in breast cancer (BC) patients (pts) <40 years of age after paclitaxel (T)-based adjuvant chemotherapy (CT)). Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2002;76(suppl 1):A645; abstr
  65. Kanis JA. Diagnosis of osteoporosis and assessment of fracture risk. Lancet. 2002;359:1929–1936
  66. Pouilles JM, Tremollieres F, Bonneu M, et al.  Influence of early age at menopause on vertebral bone mass. J Bone Miner Res. 1994;9:311–315
  67. Chlebowski R, McTiernan A. Elements of informed consent for hormone replacement therapy in patients with diagnosed breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 1999;17:130–142
  68. Rossouw JE, Davis WW, Doner L, et al.  Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women (Principal results from the Women’s Health Initiative randomized controlled trial). JAMA. 2002;288:321–333
  69. Anasti JN, Kalantavidou SN, Kimzey LM, et al.  Bone loss in young women with karyotypically normal spontaneous premature ovarian failure. Obstet Gynecol. 1998;91:12–15
  70. Ganz PA, Greendale GA. Menopause and breast cancer (Addressing the secondary health effects of adjuvant chemotherapy). J Clin Oncol. 2001;19:3303–3305
  71. Bruning PF, Pit MJ, de Jong-Bakker M, et al.  Bone mineral density after adjuvant chemotherapy for premenopausal breast cancer. Br J Cancer. 1990;61:308–310
  72. Delmas PD, Balena R, Confrarreux E, et al.  Bisphosphonate risedronate prevents bone loss in women with artificial menopause due to chemotherapy of breast cancer (A double-blind, placebo-controlled study). J Clin Oncol. 1997;15:955–962
  73. Powles T, Mccloskey E, Patterson AH, et al.  Oral clodronate and reduction in loss of bone mineral density in women with operable primary breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1998;90:704–708
  74. Headley JA, Theriault RL, LeBlanc AD, et al.  Pilot study of bone mineral density in breast cancer patients treated with adjuvant chemotherapy. Cancer Invest. 1998;156:6–11
  75. Vehmanen L, Saarto T, Elomaa I, et al.  Long-term impact of chemotherapy-induced ovarian failure on bone mineral density (BMD) in premenopausal breast cancer patients (The effect of adjuvant clodronate treatment). Eur J Cancer. 2001;37:2373–2378
  76. Kanis JA, Mccloskey EV, Powles T, et al.  A high incidence of vertebral fracture in women with breast cancer. Br J Cancer. 1999;79:1179–1181
  77. Adami HO, Zack M, Kressner U, et al.  Hip fractures in women with breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol. 1990;132:877–883
  78. Gennari L, Becherini L, Falchetti A, et al.  Genetics of osteoporosis (role of steroid hormone receptor gene polymorphisms). J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2002;81:1–24
  79. Hou MF, Tien YC, Lin GT, et al.  Association of vitamin D receptor gene polymorphism with sporadic breast cancer in Taiwanese patients. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2002;74:1–7
  80. Bretherton-Watt D, Given-Wilson R, Mansi JL, et al.  Vitamin D receptor gene polymorphisms are associated with breast cancer risk in a UK Caucasian population. Br J Cancer. 2001;85:171–175
  81. Curran JE, Vaughan T, Lea R, et al.  Association of A vitamin D receptor polymorphism with sporadic breast cancer development. Int J Cancer. 1999;83:723–726
  82. Curran JE, Lea RA, Rutherford , et al.  Association of estrogen receptor and glucocorticoid receptor gene polymorphisms with sporadic breast cancer. Int J Cancer. 2001;95:271–275
  83. Muchmore DB. Raloxifene (A selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) with multiple target system effects). Oncologist. 2000;5:388–392
  84. Fontana A, Delmas PD. Selective estrogen receptors modulators in the prevention and treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2003;32:219–232
  85. Jordan VC, Phelps E, Lindgren JU. Effects of anti-estrogens on bone in castrated and intact female rats. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 1987;10:31–35
  86. Turner RT, Wakley GK, Hannon KS, et al.  Tamoxifen inhibits osteoclast-mediated resorption of trabecular bone in ovarian hormone-deficient rats. Endocrinology. 1988;122:1146–1150
  87. Wakley GK, Baum BL, Hannon KS, et al.  The effects of tamoxifen on the osteopenia induced by sciatic neurotomy in the rat (A histomorphometric study). Calcif Tissue Int. 1988;43:383–388
  88. Love RR, Mazess BB, Bauden HS, et al.  Effects of tamoxifen on bone mineral density in postmenopausal women with breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 1992;326:852–856
  89. Resch A, Biber E, Seifert M, et al.  Evidence that tamoxifen preserves bone density in late postmenopausal women with breast cancer. Acta Oncol. 1998;37:661–664
  90. Kristensen B, Ejlertsen B, Mouridsen HT, et al.  Tamoxifen and bone metabolism in postmenopausal low-risk breast cancer patients (A randomized study). J Clin Oncol. 1994;12:992–997
  91. Powles T, Hickish T, Kanis JA, et al.  Effect of tamoxifen on bone mineral density measured by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry in healthy premenopausal and postmenopausal women. J Clin Oncol. 1996;14:78–84
  92. Brewer B, Subramaniam G, Marchello V, et al.  A study of the effects of tamoxifen in the frail elderly (Difficulties encountered in nursing home research). Women Health. 1997;25:37–51
  93. Kristensen B, Ejlertsen B, Dalgaard P, et al.  Femoral fractures in postmenopausal breast cancer patients treated with adjuvant tamoxifen. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 1996;39:321–326
  94. Breuer B, Wallenstein S, Anderson R. Effect of tamoxifen on bone fractures in older nursing home residents. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1998;46:968–972
  95. Fisher B, Constantino JP, Wickerham DL, et al.  Tamoxifen for prevention of breast cancer (Report of the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project P-1 Study). JNCI Cancer Spectrum. 1998;90:1371–1388
  96. Clemett D, Spencer CM. Raloxifene (A review of its use in postmenopausal osteoporosis). Drugs. 2000;60:379–411
  97. Delmas PD, Bjarnason NH, Mitlak BH, et al.  Effects of raloxifene on bone mineral density, serum cholesterol concentrations, and uterine endometrium in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:1641–1647
  98. Delmas PD, Ensrud KE, Adachi JD, et al.  Efficacy of raloxifene on vertebral fracture risk reduction in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis (Four-year results from a randomized clinical trial). J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87:3609–3617
  99. Ettinger B, Black DM, Mitlak BH, et al.  Reduction of vertebral fracture risk in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis treated with raloxifene (Results from a 3-year randomized clinical trial. Multiple Outcomes of Raloxifene Evaluation (MORE)). JAMA. 1999;282:637–645
  100. Gluck O, Maricic M. Raloxifene (Recent information on skeletal and non-skeletal effects). Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2002;14:429–432
  101. Cummings SR, Eckert S, Krueger KA, et al.  The effect of raloxifene on risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women: Results from the MORE randomized trial: Multiple Outcomes of Raloxifene Evaluation. JAMA. 1999;28:2189–2197
  102. Dickler MN, Norton L. The MORE trial: Multiple outcomes for raloxifene evaluation—Breast cancer as a secondary end point: Implications for prevention. Ann NY Acad Sci. 2001;949:134–142
  103. Goldstein SR. Controversy about uterine effects and safety of SERMs (The saga continues). Menopause. 2002;9:381–384
  104. Goldstein SR. The effect of SERMs on the endometrium. Ann NY Acad Sci. 2001;949:237–242
  105. Khovidhunkit W, Shoback DM. Clinical effects of raloxifene hydrochloride in women. Ann Intern Med. 1999;130:431–439
  106. Regan R, Gajdos C, Dardes R, et al.  Effect of raloxifene after tamoxifen on breast and endometrial cancer growth. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol. 2001;21:25a; (abstr 95)
  107. Elkak AE, Mokbel K. Pure antiestrogens and breast cancer. Curr Med Res Opin. 2001;17:282–289
  108. Howell A. Preliminary experience with pure antiestrogens. Clin Cancer Res. 2001;7(suppl 12):4369s–4375s
  109. Bross PF, Cohen MH, Williams GA, et al.  FDA drug approval summaries (Fulvestrant). Oncologist. 2002;7:477–480
  110. Wardley AM. Fulvestrant (A review of its development, pre-clinical and clinical data). Int J Clin Pract. 2002;56:305–309
  111. Howell A, Robertson JF, Quaresma Albano J, et al.  Fulvestrant, formerly ICI 182,780, is as effective as anastrozole in postmenopausal women with advanced breast cancer progressing after prior endocrine treatment. J Clin Oncol. 2002;20:3396–3403
  112. Sibonga JD, Dobnig H, Harden RM, et al.  Effect of the high-affinity estrogen receptor ligand ICI 182,780 on the rat tibia. Endocrinology. 1998;139:3736–3742
  113. Gallagher A, Chambers TJ, Tobias JH. The estrogen antagonist ICI 182,780 reduces cancellous bone volume in female rats. Endocrinology. 1993;133:2787–2791
  114. Turner RT, Evans GL, Dobnig H. The high-affinity estrogen receptor antagonist ICI 182,780 has no effect on bone growth in young male rats. Calcif Tissue Int. 2000;66:461–464
  115. Vandenput L, Swinnene JW, Van Herck E, et al.  The estrogen receptor ligand ICI 182,780 does not impair the bone-sparing effects of testosterone in the young orchidectomized rat model. Calcif Tissue Int. 2002;70:170–175
  116. Mokbel K. The evolving role of aromatase inhibitors in breast cancer. Int J Clin Oncol. 2002;7:279–283
  117. Smith IE, Dowsett M. Aromatase inhibitors in breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:2431–2442
  118. Simpson ER, Mahendroo MS, Means GD, et al.  Aromatase cytochrome P450, the enzyme responsible for estrogen biosynthesis. Endocr Rev. 1994;15:342–355
  119. Brueggemeier R. Aromatase, aromatase inhibitors, and breast cancer. Am J Ther. 2001;8:333–344
  120. Brodie A, Njar V. Aromatase inhibitors and their application in breast cancer treatment. Steroids. 2000;65:171–179
  121. Dowsett M, Lee K, Macauley VM, et al.  The control and biological importance of intratumoural aromatase in breast cancer. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 1996;56:145–150
  122. Miller WR, Mullen P, Sourdaine P, et al.  Regulation of aromatase activity within the breast. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 1997;61:193–202
  123. Brodie A, Lu Q, Yew W, et al.  Intratumoral aromatase model (the effects of letrozole (CGS 20267)). Breast Cancer Res Treat. 1998;49(suppl 1):S23–S26
  124. Miller WR, et al.  Clinical importance of intratumoral aromatase. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 1998;49(suppl 1):S27–S32
  125. Bhatnagar AS, Brodie AM, Long BJ, et al.  Intracellular aromatase and its relevance to the pharmacological efficacy of aromatase inhibitors. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2001;76:199–202
  126. Geisler J, Detre S, Berntsen H, et al.  Influence of neoadjuvant anastrozole (Arimidex) on intratumoral estrogen levels and proliferation markers in patients with locally advanced breast cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2001;7:1230–1236
  127. Harper-Wynne CL, Sacks NP, Shenton K, et al.  Comparison of the systemic and intratumoral effects of tamoxifen and the aromatase inhibitor vorozole in postmenopausal patients with primary breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2002;20:1026–1035
  128. Baum M, Budzar AV, Cuzick J, et al.  Anastrozole alone or in combination with tamoxifen versus tamoxifen alone for adjuvant treatment of postmenopausal women with early breast cancer (First results of the ATAC randomised trial). Lancet. 2002;359:2131–2139
  129. Sainsbury JR. Beneficial side effect profile of anastrozole compared with tamoxifen confirmed by additional 7 months of exposure data (A safety update from the ‘Arimidex,’ Tamoxifen Alone or in Combination (ATAC) trial). Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2002;76(suppl 1):A633; abstr
  130. Goss P. Anti-aromatase agents in the treatment and prevention of breast cancer. Cancer Control. 2002;9(suppl 2):2–8
  131. Goss P, Grynpas M, Qi S, et al.  The effects of exemestane on bone and lipid in the ovariectomized rat. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2001;75(suppl 1):A132; abstr
  132. Goss P, Cheung AM, Lowery C, et al.  Comparison of the effects of exemestane, 17-hydroexemestane, and letrozole on bone and lipid metabolism in the ovariectomized rat. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2002;76(suppl 1):S107; abstr A415
  133. Winer EP, Hudis C, Burstein HJ, et al.  American Society of Clinical Oncology technology assessment on the use of aromatase inhibitors as adjuvant therapy for women with hormone receptor-positive breast cancer (Status report 2002). Lancet. 2002;359:2131–2139
  134. Twiss JJ, Waltman N, Ott CD, et al.  Bone mineral density in postmenopausal breast cancer survivors. J Am Acad Nurse Pract. 2001;13:276–284
  135. Mincey BA, Moraghan TJ, Perez EA. Prevention and treatment of osteoporosis in women with breast cancer. Mayo Clin Proc. 2000;75:821–829
  136. Sambrook PN, Eisman JA. Osteoporosis prevention and treatment. Med J Aust. 2000;172:226–229
  137. Willett WC. Goals for nutrition in the year 2000. CA Cancer J Clin. 1999;49:331–352
  138. Hodgson SF, Watts NB, Bilezikian JP, et al.  American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists 2001 Medical Guidelines for Clinical Practice for the Prevention and Management of Postmenopausal Osteoporosis. Endocr Pract. 2001;7:293–312
  139. Lunt M, Masaryk P, Scheidt-Nave C, et al.  The effects of lifestyle, dietary dairy intake and diabetes on bone density and vertebral deformity prevalence (the EVOS study). Osteoporosis Int. 2001;12:688–698
  140. Hillner BE, Ingle JN, Chlebowski RT, et al.  American Society of Clinical Oncology guideline on the role of bisphosphonates in breast cancer. American Society of Clinical Oncology Bisphosphonates Expert Panel. J Clin Oncol. 2000;18:1378–1391
  141. Saarto T, Bloomquist C, Valimaki M, et al.  Chemical castration induced by adjuvant cyclophosphamide, methotrexate, and fluorouracil chemotherapy causes rapid bone loss that is reduced by clodronate (A randomized study in premenopausal breast cancer patients). J Clin Oncol. 1997;15:1341–1347

PII: S0093-7754(03)00478-0

doi: 10.1053/j.seminoncol.2003.08.028

Seminars in Oncology
Volume 30, Issue 6 , Pages 763-775 , December 2003