Seminars in Oncology
Volume 36, Issue 2 , Pages 91-105 , April 2009

Management of Women With Newly Diagnosed Ovarian Cancer

  • Carolyn Krasner

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress correspondence to Carolyn Krasner, MD, Massachusetts General Hospital, Yawkey 9, 55 Fruit St, Boston MA 02114
  • ,
  • Linda Duska

References 

  1. Jemal A, Siegel R, Ward E, Hoo Y, Xu J, Murray T, et al. Cancer statistics, 2008. Ca Cancer J Clin. 2008;58:71–96
  2. Goff BA, Matthews BJ, Larson EH, Holly C, Andrilla A, Wynn M, et al. Predictors of comprehensive surgical treatment in patients with ovarian cancer. Cancer. 2007;109:2031–2042
  3. Earle CC, Schrag D, Neville BA, Yabroff KR, Topor M, Fahey A, et al. Effect of surgeon specialty on processes of care and outcomes for ovarian cancer patients. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2006;98:172–180
  4. Bristow RE, Berek JS. Surgery for ovarian cancer: how to improve survival. Lancet. 2006;367:1558–1560
  5. Vernooij F, Heintz P, Witteveen E, van der Graaf Y. The outcomes of ovarian cancer treatment are better when provided by gynecologic oncologists and in specialized hospitals: a systematic review. Gynecol Oncol. 2007;105:801–812
  6. Monk BJ, Disaia PJ. What is the role of conservative primary surgical management of epithelial ovarian cancer: the United States experience and debate. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2005;15(Suppl 3):199–205
  7. Park JY, Kim DY, Suh DS, Kim JH, Kim YM, Kim YT, et al. Outcomes of fertility-sparing surgery for invasive epithelial ovarian cancer: oncologic safety and reproductive outcomes. Gynecol Oncol. 2008;110:345–353
  8. Barlow TS, Przybylski M, Schilder JM, Moore DH, Look KY. The utility of presurgical CA125 to predict optimal tumor cytoreduction of epithelial ovarian cancer. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2006;16:496–500
  9. Gilani MM, Karimi Zarchi M, Ghaemmaghami F, Behtash N, Mousavi AS, Ansaripoor S. A study to evaluate the utility of presurgical CA125 to predict optimal tumor cytoreduction of epithelial ovarian cancer. Gynecol Oncol. 2007;105:780–783
  10. Zivanovic O, Eisenhauer EL, Zhou Q, Iasonos A, Sabbatini P, Sonoda Y, et al. The impact of bulky upper abdominal disease cephalad to the greater omentum on surgical outcome for stage IIIC epithelial ovarian, fallopian tube, and primary peritoneal cancer. Gynecol Oncol. 2008;108:287–292
  11. Cannistra SA. Cancer of the ovary. N Engl J Med. 2004;351:2519–2529
  12. Bristow RE, Eisenhauer EL, Santillan A, Chi DS. Delaying the primary surgical effort for advanced ovarian cancer: a systematic review of neoadjuvant chemotherapy and interval cytoreduction. Gynecol Oncol. 2007;104:480–490
  13. Hou JY, Kelly MG, Yu H, McAlpine JN, Azodi M, Rutherford TJ, et al. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy lessens surgical morbidity in advanced ovarian cancer and leads to improved survival in stage IV disease. Gynecol Oncol. 2007;105:211–217
  14. Kumar L, Hariprasad R, Kumar S, Bhatla N, Thulkar S, Vijayaraghavan S, et al. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NACT) followed by interval debulking surgery versus upfront surgery followed by chemotherapy (CT) in advanced epithelial ovarian carcinoma (EOC): a prospective randomized study—Interim results. 2007;Paper presented at: ASCO Annual Meeting, San Francisco, CA
  15. Onda T, Matsumoto K, Shibata T, Sato A, Fukuda H, Konishi I, et al. Phase III trial of upfront debulking surgery versus neoadjuvant chemotherapy for stage III/IV ovarian, tubal and peritoneal cancers: Japan Clinical Oncology Group study JCOG0602. Jpn J Clin Oncol. 2008;38:74–77
  16. Van Gorp T, Amant F, Neven P, Berteloot P, Leunen K, Vergote I. The role of neoadjuvant chemotherapy versus primary surgery in the management of stage III ovarian cancer. Cancer Treat Res. 2007;134:387–402
  17. Sabbatini P, Spriggs DR. Consolidation for ovarian cancer in remission. J Clin Oncol. 2006;24:537–539
  18. Hoskins WJ. Epithelial ovarian carcinoma: principles of primary surgery. Gynecol Oncol. 1994;55:S91–S96
  19. Ahmed FY, Wiltshaw E, A'Hern RP, Nicol B, Shepherd J, Blake P, et al. Natural history and prognosis of untreated stage I epithelial ovarian carcinoma. J Clin Oncol. 1996;14:2968–2975
  20. Young RC, Walton LA, Ellenberg SS, Homesley HD, Wilbanks GD, Decker DG, et al. Adjuvant therapy in stage I and stage II epithelial ovarian cancer (Results of two prospective randomized trials). N Engl J Med. 1990;322:1021–1027
  21. Young RC, Brady MF, Nieberg RK, Long HJ, Mayer AR, Lentz SS, et al. Adjuvant treatment for early ovarian cancer: a randomized phase III trial of intraperitoneal 32P or intravenous cyclophosphamide and cisplatin—a Gynecologic Oncology Group study. J Clin Oncol. 2003;21:4350–4355
  22. Bolis G, Colombo N, Pecorelli S, Torri V, Marsoni S, Bonazzi C, et al. Adjuvant treatment for early epithelial ovarian cancer: results of two randomised clinical trials comparing cisplatin to no further treatment or chromic phosphate (32P) (G.I.C.O.G.: Gruppo Interregionale Collaborativo in Ginecologia Oncologica). Ann Oncol. 1995;6:887–893
  23. Colombo PE, Mourregot A, Fabbro M, Gutowski M, Saint-Aubert B, Quenet F, et al. Aggressive surgical strategies in advanced ovarian cancer: a monocentric study of 203 stage IIIC and IV patients. Eur J Surg Oncol. 2009;35:135–143
  24. Vergote IB, Vergote-De Vos LN, Abeler VM, Aas M, Lindegaard MW, et al. Randomized trial comparing cisplatin with radioactive phosphorus or whole-abdomen irradiation as adjuvant treatment of ovarian cancer. Cancer. 1992;69:741–749
  25. Thigpen T, Vance RB, McGuire WP, Hoskins WJ, Brady M. The role of paclitaxel in the management of coelomic epithelial carcinoma of the ovary: a review with emphasis on the Gynecologic Oncology Group experience. Semin Oncol. 1995;22(Suppl 14):23–31
  26. Trimbos JB, Parmar M, Vergote I, Guthrie D, Bolis G, Colombo N, et al. International Collaborative Ovarian Neoplasm trial 1 and Adjuvant ChemoTherapy In Ovarian Neoplasm trial: two parallel randomized phase III trials of adjuvant chemotherapy in patients with early-stage ovarian carcinoma. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2003;95:105–112
  27. Trimbos JB, Vergote I, Bolis G, Vermorken JB, Mangioni C, Madronal C, et al. Impact of adjuvant chemotherapy and surgical staging in early-stage ovarian carcinoma: European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer-Adjuvant ChemoTherapy in Ovarian Neoplasm trial. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2003;95:113–125
  28. Bell J, Brady MF, Young RC, Lage J, Walker JL, Look KY, et al. Randomized phase III trial of three versus six cycles of adjuvant carboplatin and paclitaxel in early stage epithelial ovarian carcinoma: a Gynecologic Oncology Group study. Gynecol Oncol. 2006;102:432–439
  29. Griffiths CT. Surgical resection of tumor bulk in the primary treatment of ovarian carcinoma. Natl Cancer Inst Monogr. 1975;42:101–104
  30. Eisenkop SM, Spirtos NM, Lin WC. “Optimal” cytoreduction for advanced epithelial ovarian cancer: a commentary. Gynecol Oncol. 2006;103:329–335
  31. Winter WE, Maxwell GL, Tian C, Sundborg MJ, Rose GS, Rose PG, et al. Tumor residual after surgical cytoreduction in prediction of clinical outcome in stage IV epithelial ovarian cancer: a Gynecologic Oncology Group study. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26:83–89
  32. Hoskins WJ, McGuire WP, Brady MF, Homesley HD, Creasman WT, Berman M, et al. The effect of diameter of largest residual disease on survival after primary cytoreductive surgery in patients with suboptimal residual epithelial ovarian carcinoma. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1994;170:974–979
  33. Naik R, Nordin A, Cross PA, Hemming D, de Barros Lopes A, Monaghan JM. Optimal cytoreductive surgery is an independent prognostic indicator in stage IV epithelial ovarian cancer with hepatic metastases. Gynecol Oncol. 2000;78:171–175
  34. Bristow RE, Montz FJ, Lagasse LD, Leuchter RS, Karlan BY. Survival impact of surgical cytoreduction in stage IV epithelial ovarian cancer. Gynecol Oncol. 1999;72:278–287
  35. Eisenkop SM, Spirtos NM, Montag TW, Nalick RH, Wang HJ. The impact of subspecialty training on the management of advanced ovarian cancer. Gynecol Oncol. 1992;47:203–209
  36. Paulsen T, Kjaerheim K, Kaern J, Tretli S, Trope C. Improved short-term survival for advanced ovarian, tubal, and peritoneal cancer patients operated at teaching hospitals. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2006;16(Suppl 1):11–17
  37. Nelson BE, Rosenfield AT, Schwartz PE. Preoperative abdominopelvic computed tomographic prediction of optimal cytoreduction in epithelial ovarian carcinoma. J Clin Oncol. 1993;11:166–172
  38. Dowdy SC, Mullany SA, Brandt KR, Huppert BJ, Cliby WA. The utility of computed tomography scans in predicting suboptimal cytoreductive surgery in women with advanced ovarian carcinoma. Cancer. 2004;101:346–352
  39. Byrom J, Widjaja E, Redman CW, Jones PW, Tebby S. Can pre-operative computed tomography predict resectability of ovarian carcinoma at primary laparotomy?. BJOG. 2002;109:369–375
  40. Axtell AE, Lee MH, Bristow RE, Dowdy SC, Cliby WA, Raman S, et al. Multi-institutional reciprocal validation study of computed tomography predictors of suboptimal primary cytoreduction in patients with advanced ovarian cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2007;25:384–389
  41. Bristow RE, Duska LR, Lambrou NC, Fishman EK, O'Neill MJ, Trimble EL, et al. A model for predicting surgical outcome in patients with advanced ovarian carcinoma using computed tomography. Cancer. 2000;89:1532–1540
  42. Chi DS, Venkatraman ES, Masson V, Hoskins WJ. The ability of preoperative serum CA-125 to predict optimal primary tumor cytoreduction in stage III epithelial ovarian carcinoma. Gynecol Oncol. 2000;77:227–231
  43. Gemer O, Segal S, Kopmar A. Preoperative CA-125 level as a predictor of non optimal cytoreduction of advanced epithelial ovarian cancer. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2001;80:583–585
  44. Gemer O, Lurian M, Gdalevich M, Kaputsian V, Piura E, Schneider D, et al. A multicenter study of CA 125 level as a predictor of non-optimal primary cytoreduction of advanced epithelial ovarian cancer. Eur J Surg Oncol. 2005;31:1006–1010
  45. Cooper BC, Sood AK, Davis CS, Ritchie JM, Sorosky JI, Anderson B, et al. Preoperative CA 125 levels: an independent prognostic factor for epithelial ovarian cancer. Obstet Gynecol. 2002;100:59–64
  46. de Jong D, Eijkemans MJ, Lie Fong S, Gerestein CG, Kooi GS, Baalbergen A, et al. Preoperative predictors for residual tumor after surgery in patients with ovarian carcinoma. Oncology. 2007;72:293–301
  47. Deffieux X, Castaigne D, Pomel C. Role of laparoscopy to evaluate candidates for complete cytoreduction in advanced stages of epithelial ovarian cancer. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2006;16(Suppl 1):35–40
  48. Fagotti A, Ferrandina G, Fanfani F, Ercoli A, Lorusso D, Rossi M, et al. A laparoscopy-based score to predict surgical outcome in patients with advanced ovarian carcinoma: a pilot study. Ann Surg Oncol. 2006;13:1156–1161
  49. Salani R, Axtell A, Gerardi M, Holschneider C, Bristow RE. Limited utility of conventional criteria for predicting unresectable disease in patients with advanced stage epithelial ovarian cancer. Gynecol Oncol. 2008;108:271–275
  50. Moore KN, Reid MS, Fong DN, Myers TK, Landrum LM, Moxley KM, et al. Ovarian cancer in the octogenarian: does the paradigm of aggressive cytoreductive surgery and chemotherapy still apply?. Gynecol Oncol. 2008;110:133–139
  51. Aletti GD, Santillan A, Eisenhauer EL, Hu J, Aletti G, Podratz KC, et al. A new frontier for quality of care in gynecologic oncology surgery: multi-institutional assessment of short-term outcomes for ovarian cancer using a risk-adjusted model. Gynecol Oncol. 2007;107:99–106
  52. Geisler JP, Linnemeier GC, Thomas AJ, Manahan KJ. Nutritional assessment using prealbumin as an objective criterion to determine whom should not undergo primary radical cytoreductive surgery for ovarian cancer. Gynecol Oncol. 2007;106:128–131
  53. Alphs HH, Zahurak ML, Bristow RE, Diaz-Montes TP. Predictors of surgical outcome and survival among elderly women diagnosed with ovarian and primary peritoneal cancer. Gynecol Oncol. 2006;103:1048–1053
  54. Omura GA, Morrow CP, Blessing JA, Miller A, Buchsbaum HJ, Homesley HD, et al. A randomized comparison of melphalan versus melphalan plus hexamethylmelamine versus adriamycin plus cyclophosphamide in ovarian carcinoma. Cancer. 1983;51:783–789
  55. Thigpen T, Vance R, Puneky L, Khansur T. Chemotherapy in advanced ovarian carcinoma: current standards of care based on randomized trials. Gynecol Oncol. 1994;55:S97–S107
  56. McGuire WP, Ozols RF. Chemotherapy of advanced ovarian cancer. Semin Oncol. 1998;25:340–348
  57. Chemotherapy in advanced ovarian cancer (an overview of randomised clinical trials. Advanced Ovarian Cancer Trialists Group). BMJ. 1991;303:884–893
  58. Alberts DS, Green S, Hannigan EV, O’Toole R, Stock-Novack D, Anderson P, et al. Improved therapeutic index of carboplatin plus cyclophosphamide versus cisplatin plus cyclophosphamide: final report by the Southwest Oncology Group of a phase III randomized trial in stages III and IV ovarian cancer. J Clin Oncol. 1992;10:706–717
  59. ICON2: randomised trial of single-agent carboplatin against three-drug combination of CAP (cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and cisplatin) in women with ovarian cancer (ICON Collaborators. International Collaborative Ovarian Neoplasm Study). Lancet. 1998;352:1571–1576
  60. McGuire WP, Rowinsky EK, Rosenshein NB, Grumbine FC, Ettinger DS, Armstrong DK, et al. Taxol: a unique antineoplastic agent with significant activity in advanced ovarian epithelial neoplasms. Ann Intern Med. 1989;111:273–279
  61. McGuire WP, Hoskins WJ, Brady MF, Kucera PR, Partridge EE, Look KY, et al. Cyclophosphamide and cisplatin compared with paclitaxel and cisplatin in patients with stage III and stage IV ovarian cancer. N Engl J Med. 1996;334:1–6
  62. Piccart MJ, Bertelsen K, James K, Cassidy J, Mangioni C, Simonsen E, et al. Randomized intergroup trial of cisplatin-paclitaxel versus cisplatin-cyclophosphamide in women with advanced epithelial ovarian cancer: three-year results. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2000;92:699–708
  63. Ozols RF, Bundy BN, Greer BE, Fowler JM, Clarke-Pearson D, Burger RA, et al. Phase III trial of carboplatin and paclitaxel compared with cisplatin and paclitaxel in patients with optimally resected stage III ovarian cancer: a Gynecologic Oncology Group study. J Clin Oncol. 2003;21:3194–3200
  64. du Bois A, Lück HJ, Meier W, Adams HP, Möbus V, Costa S, et al. A randomized clinical trial of cisplatin/paclitaxel versus carboplatin/paclitaxel as first-line treatment of ovarian cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2003;95:1320–1329
  65. ICON2: randomised trial of single-agent carboplatin against three-drug combination of CAP (cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and cisplatin) in women with ovarian cancer (ICON Collaborators. International Collaborative Ovarian Neoplasm Study). Lancet. 1998;352:1571–1576
  66. Vasey PA, Jayson GC, Gordon A, Gabra H, Coleman R, Atkinson R, et al. Phase III randomized trial of docetaxel-carboplatin versus paclitaxel-carboplatin as first-line chemotherapy for ovarian carcinoma. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2004;96:1682–1691
  67. Bookman MA. GOG0182-ICON5: 5-arm phase III randomized trial of paclitaxel (P) and carboplatin (C) vs combinations with gemcitibine (G), PEG-lipososomal doxorubicin (D), or topotecan (T) in patients (pts) with advanced-stage epithelial ovarian (EOC) or primary peritoneal (PPC) carcinoma. 2006;Paper presented at: ASCO Annual Meeting, Atlanta, GA
  68. du Bois A, Weber B, Rochon J, Meier W, Goupil A, Olbricht S, et al. Addition of epirubicin as a third drug to carboplatin-paclitaxel in first-line treatment of advanced ovarian cancer: a prospectively randomized gynecologic cancer intergroup trial by the Arbeitsgemeinschaft Gynaekologische Onkologie Ovarian Cancer Study Group and the Groupe d'Investigateurs Nationaux pour l'Etude des Cancers Ovariens. J Clin Oncol. 2006;24:1127–1135
  69. Hakes TB, Chalas E, Hoskins WJ, Jones WB, Markman M, Rubin SC, et al. Randomized prospective trial of 5 versus 10 cycles of cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and cisplatin in advanced ovarian carcinoma. Gynecol Oncol. 1992;45:284–289
  70. Markman M, Rowinsky E, Hakes T, Reichman B, Jones W, Lewis JL, et al. Phase I trial of intraperitoneal Taxol: a Gynecoloic Oncology Group study. J Clin Oncol. 1992;10:1485–1491
  71. Bertelsen K, Jakobsen A, Strøyer J, Nielsen K, Sandberg E, Andersen JE, et al. A prospective randomized comparison of 6 and 12 cycles of cyclophosphamide, adriamycin, and cisplatin in advanced epithelial ovarian cancer: a Danish Ovarian Study Group trial (DACOVA). Gynecol Oncol. 1993;49:30–36
  72. De Placido S, Scambia G, Di Vagno G, Naglieri E, Lombardi AV, Biamonte R, et al. Topotecan compared with no therapy after response to surgery and carboplatin/paclitaxel in patients with ovarian cancer: Multicenter Italian Trials in Ovarian Cancer (MITO-1) randomized study. J Clin Oncol. 2004;22:2635–2642
  73. Pfisterer J, Weber B, Reuss A, Kimmig R, du Bois A, Wagner U, et al. Randomized phase III trial of topotecan following carboplatin and paclitaxel in first-line treatment of advanced ovarian cancer: a gynecologic cancer intergroup trial of the AGO-OVAR and GINECO. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2006;98:1036–1045
  74. Frei E, Canellos GP. Dose: a critical factor in cancer chemotherapy. Am J Med. 1980;69:585–594
  75. Levin L, Hryniuk WM. Dose intensity analysis of chemotherapy regimens in ovarian carcinoma. J Clin Oncol. 1987;5:756–767
  76. Levin L, Simon R, Hryniuk W. Importance of multiagent chemotherapy regimens in ovarian carcinoma: dose intensity analysis. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1993;85:1732–1742
  77. Jakobsen A, Bertelsen K, Andersen JE, Havsteen H, Jakobsen P, Moeller KA, et al. Dose-effect study of carboplatin in ovarian cancer: a Danish Ovarian Cancer Group study. J Clin Oncol. 1997;15:193–198
  78. Bolis G, Scarfone G, Polverino G, Raspagliesi F, Tateo S, Richiardi G, et al. Paclitaxel 175 or 225 mg per meters squared with carboplatin in advanced ovarian cancer: a randomized trial. J Clin Oncol. 2004;22:686–690
  79. Rowinsky EK, Mackey MK, Goodman SN. Meta-analysis of paclitaxel (P) dose-response and dose intensity (DI) in recurrent or refractory ovarian cancer (OC) (meeting abstract no. 970). 1996;Paper presented at: ASCO Annual Meeting, Philadelphia, PA
  80. Omura GA, Brady MF, Look KY, Averette HE, Delmore JE, Long HJ, et al. Phase III trial of paclitaxel at two dose levels, the higher dose accompanied by filgrastim at two dose levels in platinum-pretreated epithelial ovarian cancer: an intergroup study. J Clin Oncol. 2003;21:2843–2848
  81. Dedrick RL, Myers CE, Bungay PM, DeVita VT. Pharmacokinetic rationale for peritoneal drug administration in the treatment of ovarian cancer. Cancer Treat Rep. 1978;62:1–11
  82. DeGregorio MW, Lum BL, Holleran WM, Wilbur BJ, Sikic BI. Preliminary observations of intraperitoneal carboplatin pharmacokinetics during a phase I study of the Northern California Oncology Group. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 1986;18:235–238
  83. Howell SB, Pfeifle CL, Wung WE, Olshen RA, Lucas WE, Yon JL, et al. Intraperitoneal cisplatin with systemic thiosulfate protection. Ann Intern Med. 1982;97:845–851
  84. Francis P, Rowinsky E, Schneider J, Hakes T, Hoskins W, Markman M. Phase I feasibility and pharmacologic study of weekly intraperitoneal paclitaxel: a Gynecologic Oncology Group pilot Study. J Clin Oncol. 1995;13:2961–2967
  85. Markman M, Reichman B, Hakes T, Jones W, Lewis JL, Rubin S, et al. Responses to second-line cisplatin-based intraperitoneal therapy in ovarian cancer: influence of a prior response to intravenous cisplatin. J Clin Oncol. 1991;9:1801–1805
  86. Obata NH, Tamakoshi K, Shibata K, Kikkawa F, Tomoda Y. Effects of interleukin-6 on in vitro cell attachment, migration and invasion of human ovarian carcinoma. Anticancer Res. 1997;17:337–342
  87. Tempfer C, Zeisler H, Sliutz G, Haeusler G, Hanzal E, Kainz C. Serum evaluation of interleukin 6 in ovarian cancer patients. Gynecol Oncol. 1997;66:27–30
  88. Duan Z, Feller AJ, Penson RT, Chabner BA, Seiden MV. Discovery of differentially expressed genes associated with paclitaxel resistance using cDNA array technology: analysis of interleukin (IL) 6, IL-8, and monocyte chemotactic protein 1 in the paclitaxel-resistant phenotype. Clin Cancer Res. 1999;5:3445–3453
  89. Alberts DS, Liu PY, Hannigan EV, O'Toole R, Williams SD, Young JA, et al. Intraperitoneal cisplatin plus intravenous cyclophosphamide versus intravenous cisplatin plus intravenous cyclophosphamide for stage III ovarian cancer. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:1950–1955
  90. Markman M, Bundy BN, Alberts DS, Fowler JM, Clark-Pearson DL, Carson LF, et al. Phase III trial of standard-dose intravenous cisplatin plus paclitaxel versus moderately high-dose carboplatin followed by intravenous paclitaxel and intraperitoneal cisplatin in small-volume stage III ovarian carcinoma: an intergroup study of the Gynecologic Oncology Group, Southwestern Oncology Group, and Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. J Clin Oncol. 2001;19:1001–1007
  91. Armstrong DK, Bundy B, Wenzel L, Huang HQ, Baergen R, Lele S, et al. Intraperitoneal cisplatin and paclitaxel in ovarian cancer. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:34–43
  92. Pfeiffer P, Bennedbaek O, Bertelsen K. Intraperitoneal carboplatin in the treatment of minimal residual ovarian cancer. Gynecol Oncol. 1990;36:306–311
  93. Markman M, Reichman B, Hakes T, Rubin S, Lewis JL, Jones W, et al. Evidence supporting the superiority of intraperitoneal cisplatin compared to intraperitoneal carboplatin for salvage therapy of small-volume residual ovarian cancer. Gynecol Oncol. 1993;50:100–104
  94. Nagao S, Fujiwara K, Ohishi R, Nakanishi Y, Iwasa N, Shimizu M, et al. Combination chemotherapy of intraperitoneal carboplatin and intravenous paclitaxel in suboptimally debulked epithelial ovarian cancer. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2008;18:1210–1214
  95. van der Burg ME, van Lent M, Buyse M, Kobierska A, Colombo N, Favalli G, et al. The effect of debulking surgery after induction chemotherapy on the prognosis in advanced epithelial ovarian cancer (Gynecological Cancer Cooperative Group of the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer). N Engl J Med. 1995;332:629–634
  96. Coldman AJ, Goldie JH. A stochastic model for the origin and treatment of tumors containing drug-resistant cells. Bull Math Biol. 1986;48:279–292
  97. Santin AD, Hermonat PL, Ravaggi A, Cannon MJ, Pecorelli S, Parham GP. Secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor in ovarian cancer. Eur J Gynaecol Oncol. 1999;20:177–181
  98. Yokoyama Y, Charnock-Jones DS, Licence D, Yanaihara A, Hastings JM, Holland CM, et al. Expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-D and its receptor, VEGF receptor 3, as a prognostic factor in endometrial carcinoma. Clin Cancer Res. 2003;9:1361–1369
  99. Mesiano S, Ferrara N, Jaffe RB. Role of vascular endothelial growth factor in ovarian cancer: inhibition of ascites formation by immunoneutralization. Am J Pathol. 1998;153:1249–1256
  100. Burger RA, Sill MW, Monk BJ, Greer BE, Sorosky JI. Phase II trial of bevacizumab in persistent or recurrent epithelial ovarian cancer or primary peritoneal cancer: a Gynecologic Oncology Group study. J Clin Oncol. 2007;25:5165–5171
  101. Garcia AA, Hirte H, Fleming G, Yang D, Tsao-Wei DD, Roman L, et al. Phase II clinical trial of bevacizumab and low-dose metronomic oral cyclophosphamide in recurrent ovarian cancer: a trial of the California, Chicago, and Princess Margaret Hospital phase II consortia. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26:76–82
  102. Cannistra SA, Matulonis UA, Penson RT, Hambleton J, Dupont J, Mackey H, et al. Phase II study of bevacizumab in patients with platinum-resistant ovarian cancer or peritoneal serous cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2007;25:5180–5186
  103. Simpkins F, Belinson JL, Rose PG. Avoiding bevacizumab related gastrointestinal toxicity for recurrent ovarian cancer by careful patient screening. Gynecol Oncol. 2007;107:118–123

PII: S0093-7754(08)00258-3

doi: 10.1053/j.seminoncol.2008.12.001

Seminars in Oncology
Volume 36, Issue 2 , Pages 91-105 , April 2009