Seminars in Oncology
Volume 37, Issue 3 , Pages 282-296 , June 2010

Epidemiological and Clinical Studies of Nutrition

  • Todd M. Gibson

      Affiliations

    • Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Rockville, MD
    • Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT
    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress correspondence to Todd M. Gibson, PhD, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, 6120 Executive Blvd, Rockville, MD, 20852
    • ,
  • Leah M. Ferrucci

      Affiliations

    • Yale University School of Nursing, New Haven, CT
    • ,
  • Joseph A. Tangrea

      Affiliations

    • Division of Cancer Prevention, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Rockville, MD
    • ,
  • Arthur Schatzkin

      Affiliations

    • Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Rockville, MD

References 

  1. Armstrong B, Doll R. Environmental factors and cancer incidence and mortality in different countries, with special reference to dietary practices. Int J Cancer. 1975;15:617–631
  2. World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, nutrition, physical activity, and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective. Washington, DC: AICR; 2007;
  3. Willett WC. Diet and cancer: one view at the start of the millennium. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2001;10:3–8
  4. Doll R, Peto R. The causes of cancer: quantitative estimates of avoidable risks of cancer in the United States today. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1981;66:1191–1308
  5. Thiebaut AC, Kipnis V, Schatzkin A, et al. The role of dietary measurement error in investigating the hypothesized link between dietary fat intake and breast cancer—a story with twists and turns. Cancer Invest. 2008;26:68–73
  6. Byers T. Food frequency dietary assessment: how bad is good enough?. Am J Epidemiol. 2001;154:1087–1088
  7. Kipnis V, Subar AF, Midthune D, et al. Structure of dietary measurement error: results of the OPEN biomarker study. Am J Epidemiol. 2003;158:14–21
  8. Kristal AR, Peters U, Potter JD. Is it time to abandon the food frequency questionnaire?. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2005;14:2826–2828
  9. Kristal AR, Potter JD. Not the time to abandon the food frequency questionnaire: counterpoint. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2006;15:1759–1760
  10. Willett WC, Hu FB. Not the time to abandon the food frequency questionnaire: point. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2006;15:1757–1758
  11. Willett W. Nutrition and cancer: the search continues. Nutr Cancer. 2008;60:557–559
  12. Pierce JP. Diet and breast cancer prognosis: making sense of the Women's Healthy Eating and Living and Women's Intervention Nutrition Study trials. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol. 2009;21:86–91
  13. Prentice RL, Caan B, Chlebowski RT, et al. Low-fat dietary pattern and risk of invasive breast cancer: the Women's Health Initiative Randomized Controlled Dietary Modification Trial. JAMA. 2006;295:629–642
  14. Sansbury LB, Wanke K, Albert PS, et al. The effect of strict adherence to a high-fiber, high-fruit and -vegetable, and low-fat eating pattern on adenoma recurrence. Am J Epidemiol. 2009;170:576–584
  15. Byers T. What can randomized controlled trials tell us about nutrition and cancer prevention?. CA Cancer J Clin. 1999;49:353–361
  16. Greenwald P, Anderson D, Nelson SA, et al. Clinical trials of vitamin and mineral supplements for cancer prevention. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85:314S–317S
  17. Meyskens FL, Szabo E. Diet and cancer: the disconnect between epidemiology and randomized clinical trials. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2005;14:1366–1369
  18. Greenwald P. Role of dietary fat in the causation of breast cancer: point. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1999;8:3–7
  19. Hunter DJ. Role of dietary fat in the causation of breast cancer: counterpoint. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1999;8:9–13
  20. Kushi L, Giovannucci E. Dietary fat and cancer. Am J Med. 2002;113(Suppl 9B):63S–70S
  21. Freedman LS, Clifford C, Messina M. Analysis of dietary fat, calories, body weight, and the development of mammary tumors in rats and mice: a review. Cancer Res. 1990;50:5710–5719
  22. Hursting SD, Thornquist M, Henderson MM. Types of dietary fat and the incidence of cancer at five sites. Prev Med. 1990;19:242–253
  23. Buell P. Changing incidence of breast cancer in Japanese-American women. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1973;51:1479–1483
  24. Ziegler RG, Hoover RN, Pike MC, et al. Migration patterns and breast cancer risk in Asian-American women. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1993;85:1819–1827
  25. Howe GR, Hirohata T, Hislop TG, et al. Dietary factors and risk of breast cancer: combined analysis of 12 case–control studies. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1990;82:561–569
  26. Graham S, Marshall J, Mettlin C, et al. Diet in the epidemiology of breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol. 1982;116:68–75
  27. la Vecchia C, Negri E, Franceschi S, et al. Olive oil, other dietary fats, and the risk of breast cancer (Italy). Cancer Causes Control. 1995;6:545–550
  28. Michels KB, Willett WC. The Women's Health Initiative Randomized Controlled Dietary Modification Trial: a post-mortem. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2009;114:1–6
  29. Committee on Diet and Health, Food and Nutrition Board, Institutes of Medicine National Research Council. Diet and health. Washington, DC 1992;
  30. Kim EH, Willett WC, Colditz GA, et al. Dietary fat and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer in a 20-year follow-up. Am J Epidemiol. 2006;164:990–997
  31. Hunter DJ, Spiegelman D, Adami HO, et al. Cohort studies of fat intake and the risk of breast cancer—a pooled analysis. N Engl J Med. 1996;334:356–361
  32. Smith-Warner SA, Spiegelman D, Adami HO, et al. Types of dietary fat and breast cancer: a pooled analysis of cohort studies. Int J Cancer. 2001;92:767–774
  33. Bingham SA, Luben R, Welch A, et al. Are imprecise methods obscuring a relation between fat and breast cancer?. Lancet. 2003;362:212–214
  34. Freedman LS, Potischman N, Kipnis V, et al. A comparison of two dietary instruments for evaluating the fat-breast cancer relationship. Int J Epidemiol. 2006;35:1011–1021
  35. Thiebaut AC, Kipnis V, Chang SC, et al. Dietary fat and postmenopausal invasive breast cancer in the National Institutes of Health-AARP Diet and Health Study cohort. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2007;99:451–462
  36. Sieri S, Krogh V, Ferrari P, et al. Dietary fat and breast cancer risk in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;88:1304–1312
  37. Freedman LS, Kipnis V, Schatzkin A, et al. Methods of epidemiology: evaluating the fat-breast cancer hypothesis—comparing dietary instruments and other developments. Cancer J. 2008;14:69–74
  38. Smith-Warner SA, Ritz J, Hunter DJ, et al. Dietary fat and risk of lung cancer in a pooled analysis of prospective studies. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2002;11:987–992
  39. Thiebaut AC, Jiao L, Silverman DT, et al. Dietary fatty acids and pancreatic cancer in the NIH-AARP diet and health study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2009;101:1001–1011
  40. Heinen MM, Verhage BA, Goldbohm RA, et al. Meat and fat intake and pancreatic cancer risk in the Netherlands Cohort Study. Int J Cancer. 2009;125:1118–1126
  41. Nothlings U, Wilkens LR, Murphy SP, et al. Meat and fat intake as risk factors for pancreatic cancer: the multiethnic cohort study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2005;97:1458–1465
  42. Michaud DS, Giovannucci E, Willett WC, et al. Dietary meat, dairy products, fat, and cholesterol and pancreatic cancer risk in a prospective study. Am J Epidemiol. 2003;157:1115–1125
  43. Rose DP, Boyar AP, Wynder EL. International comparisons of mortality rates for cancer of the breast, ovary, prostate, and colon, and per capita food consumption. Cancer. 1986;58:2363–2371
  44. Howell MA. Factor analysis of international cancer mortality data and per capita food consumption. Br J Cancer. 1974;29:328–336
  45. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. FAOSTAT Database. http://faostat.fao.org/
  46. World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, nutrition, and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective. Washington, DC: AICR; 1997;
  47. Larsson SC, Wolk A. Meat consumption and risk of colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Int J Cancer. 2006;119:2657–2664
  48. Sandhu MS, White IR, McPherson K. Systematic review of the prospective cohort studies on meat consumption and colorectal cancer risk: a meta-analytical approach. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2001;10:439–446
  49. Norat T, Lukanova A, Ferrari P, et al. Meat consumption and colorectal cancer risk: dose-response meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Int J Cancer. 2002;98:241–256
  50. Cross AJ, Leitzmann MF, Gail MH, et al. A prospective study of red and processed meat intake in relation to cancer risk. PLoS Med. 2007;4:e325
  51. Key TJ, Appleby PN, Spencer EA, et al. Cancer incidence in vegetarians: results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC-Oxford). Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;89:1620S–1626S
  52. Skog KI, Johansson MA, Jagerstad MI. Carcinogenic heterocyclic amines in model systems and cooked foods: a review on formation, occurrence and intake. Food Chem Toxicol. 1998;36:879–896
  53. Augustsson K, Skog K, Jagerstad M, et al. Dietary heterocyclic amines and cancer of the colon, rectum, bladder, and kidney: a population-based study. Lancet. 1999;353:703–707
  54. Sinha R, Knize MG, Salmon CP, et al. Heterocyclic amine content of pork products cooked by different methods and to varying degrees of doneness. Food Chem Toxicol. 1998;36:289–297
  55. Sinha R, Rothman N, Salmon CP, et al. Heterocyclic amine content in beef cooked by different methods to varying degrees of doneness and gravy made from meat drippings. Food Chem Toxicol. 1998;36:279–287
  56. Kazerouni N, Sinha R, Hsu CH, et al. Analysis of 200 food items for benzo[a]pyrene and estimation of its intake in an epidemiologic study. Food Chem Toxicol. 2001;39:423–436
  57. Knize MG, Dolbeare FA, Cunningham PL, et al. Mutagenic activity and heterocyclic amine content of the human diet. Princess Takamatsu Symp. 1995;23:30–38
  58. Sinha R, Rothman N, Brown ED, et al. High concentrations of the carcinogen 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo- [4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) occur in chicken but are dependent on the cooking method. Cancer Res. 1995;55:4516–4519
  59. Ito N, Hasegawa R, Sano M, et al. A new colon and mammary carcinogen in cooked food, 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP). Carcinogenesis. 1991;12:1503–1506
  60. Ohgaki H, Takayama S, Sugimura T. Carcinogenicities of heterocyclic amines in cooked food. Mutat Res. 1991;259:399–410
  61. Ochiai M, Imai H, Sugimura T, et al. Induction of intestinal tumors and lymphomas in C57BL/6N mice by a food-borne carcinogen, 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine. Jpn J Cancer Res. 2002;93:478–483
  62. Ghoshal A, Preisegger KH, Takayama S, et al. Induction of mammary tumors in female Sprague-Dawley rats by the food-derived carcinogen 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine and effect of dietary fat. Carcinogenesis. 1994;15:2429–2433
  63. Nagao M, Ushijima T, Watanabe N, et al. Studies on mammary carcinogenesis induced by a heterocyclic amine, 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine, in mice and rats. Environ Mol Mutagen. 2002;39:158–164
  64. Snyderwine EG. Some perspectives on the nutritional aspects of breast cancer research (Food-derived heterocyclic amines as etiologic agents in human mammary cancer). Cancer. 1994;74:1070–1077
  65. Ito N, Hasegawa R, Imaida K, et al. Carcinogenicity of 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) in the rat. Mutat Res. 1997;376:107–114
  66. Culp SJ, Gaylor DW, Sheldon WG, et al. A comparison of the tumors induced by coal tar and benzo[a]pyrene in a 2-year bioassay. Carcinogenesis. 1998;19:117–124
  67. Glei M, Latunde-Dada GO, Klinder A, et al. Iron-overload induces oxidative DNA damage in the human colon carcinoma cell line HT29 clone 19A. Mutat Res. 2002;519:151–161
  68. Tappel A. Heme of consumed red meat can act as a catalyst of oxidative damage and could initiate colon, breast and prostate cancers, heart disease and other diseases. Med Hypotheses. 2007;68:562–564
  69. Layrisse M, Cook JD, Martinez C, et al. Food iron absorption: a comparison of vegetable and animal foods. Blood. 1969;33:430–443
  70. Carpenter CE, Mahoney AW. Contributions of heme and nonheme iron to human nutrition. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 1992;31:333–367
  71. Monsen ER, Hallberg L, Layrisse M, et al. Estimation of available dietary iron. Am J Clin Nutr. 1978;31:134–141
  72. Sesink AL, Termont DS, Kleibeuker JH, et al. Red meat and colon cancer: the cytotoxic and hyperproliferative effects of dietary heme. Cancer Res. 1999;59:5704–5709
  73. Sesink AL, Termont DS, Kleibeuker JH, et al. Red meat and colon cancer: dietary haem, but not fat, has cytotoxic and hyperproliferative effects on rat colonic epithelium. Carcinogenesis. 2000;21:1909–1915
  74. Pierre F, Freeman A, Tache S, et al. Beef meat and blood sausage promote the formation of azoxymethane-induced mucin-depleted foci and aberrant crypt foci in rat colons. J Nutr. 2004;134:2711–2716
  75. Hughes R, Cross AJ, Pollock JR, et al. Dose-dependent effect of dietary meat on endogenous colonic N-nitrosation. Carcinogenesis. 2001;22:199–202
  76. Cross AJ, Pollock JR, Bingham SA. Haem, not protein or inorganic iron, is responsible for endogenous intestinal N-nitrosation arising from red meat. Cancer Res. 2003;63:2358–2360
  77. Cross AJ, Sinha R. Meat-related mutagens/carcinogens in the etiology of colorectal cancer. Environ Mol Mutagen. 2004;44:44–55
  78. Bogovski P, Bogovski S. Animal Species in which N-nitroso compounds induce cancer. Int J Cancer. 1981;27:471–474
  79. Cross AJ, Ferrucci LM, Risch A, et al. A large prospective study of meat consumption and colorectal cancer risk: an investigation of potential mechanisms underlying this association. Cancer Res. 2010;70:2406–2414
  80. Sinha R, Park Y, Graubard BI, et al. Meat and meat-related compounds and risk of prostate cancer in a large prospective cohort study in the United States. Am J Epidemiol. 2009;170:1165–1177
  81. Koutros S, Cross AJ, Sandler DP, et al. Meat and meat mutagens and risk of prostate cancer in the Agricultural Health Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2008;17:80–87
  82. Park SY, Murphy SP, Wilkens LR, et al. Fat and meat intake and prostate cancer risk: the Multiethnic Cohort Study. Int J Cancer. 2007;121:1339–1345
  83. Taylor EF, Burley VJ, Greenwood DC, et al. Meat consumption and risk of breast cancer in the UK Women's Cohort Study. Br J Cancer. 2007;96:1139–1146
  84. Steck SE, Gaudet MM, Eng SM, et al. Cooked meat and risk of breast cancer—lifetime versus recent dietary intake. Epidemiology. 2007;18:373–382
  85. Larsson SC, Bergkvist L, Wolk A. Long-term meat intake and risk of breast cancer by oestrogen and progesterone receptor status in a cohort of Swedish women. Eur J Cancer. 2009;45:3042–3046
  86. Pala V, Krogh V, Berrino F, et al. Meat, eggs, dairy products, and risk of breast cancer in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) cohort. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;90:602–612
  87. Ferrucci LM, Cross AJ, Graubard BI, et al. Intake of meat, meat mutagens, and iron and the risk of breast cancer in the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian Cancer Screening Trial. Br J Cancer. 2009;101:178–184
  88. Kabat GC, Cross AJ, Park Y, et al. Meat intake and meat preparation in relation to risk of postmenopausal breast cancer in the NIH-AARP diet and health study. Int J Cancer. 2009;124:2430–2435
  89. Lipkin M, Reddy B, Newmark H, et al. Dietary factors in human colorectal cancer. Annu Rev Nutr. 1999;19:545–586
  90. Kaaks R, Riboli E. Colorectal cancer and intake of dietary fibre (A summary of the epidemiological evidence). Eur J Clin Nutr. 1995;49(Suppl 3):S10–S17
  91. Park Y, Hunter DJ, Spiegelman D, et al. Dietary fiber intake and risk of colorectal cancer: a pooled analysis of prospective cohort studies. JAMA. 2005;294:2849–2857
  92. Schatzkin A, Lanza E, Corle D, et al. Lack of effect of a low-fat, high-fiber diet on the recurrence of colorectal adenomas (Polyp Prevention Trial Study Group). N Engl J Med. 2000;342:1149–1155
  93. McKeown-Eyssen GE, Bright-See E, Bruce WR, et al. A randomized trial of a low fat high fibre diet in the recurrence of colorectal polyps (Toronto Polyp Prevention Group). J Clin Epidemiol. 1994;47:525–536
  94. MacLennan R, Macrae F, Bain C, et al. Randomized trial of intake of fat, fiber, and beta carotene to prevent colorectal adenomas. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1995;87:1760–1766
  95. Alberts DS, Martinez ME, Roe DJ, et al. Lack of effect of a high-fiber cereal supplement on the recurrence of colorectal adenomas (Phoenix Colon Cancer Prevention Physicians' Network). N Engl J Med. 2000;342:1156–1162
  96. Bonithon-Kopp C, Kronborg O, Giacosa A, et al. Calcium and fibre supplementation in prevention of colorectal adenoma recurrence: a randomised intervention trial (European Cancer Prevention Organisation Study Group). Lancet. 2000;356:1300–1306
  97. Winawer SJ, Zauber AG, Ho MN, et al. Prevention of colorectal cancer by colonoscopic polypectomy (The National Polyp Study Workgroup). N Engl J Med. 1993;329:1977–1981
  98. Anderson WF, Guyton KZ, Hiatt RA, et al. Colorectal cancer screening for persons at average risk. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2002;94:1126–1133
  99. Stryker SJ, Wolff BG, Culp CE, et al. Natural history of untreated colonic polyps. Gastroenterology. 1987;93:1009–1013
  100. Lanza E, Yu B, Murphy G, et al. The polyp prevention trial continued follow-up study: no effect of a low-fat, high-fiber, high-fruit, and -vegetable diet on adenoma recurrence eight years after randomization. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2007;16:1745–1752
  101. Schatzkin A, Mouw T, Park Y, et al. Dietary fiber and whole-grain consumption in relation to colorectal cancer in the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85:1353–1360
  102. Schatzkin A, Park Y, Leitzmann MF, et al. Prospective study of dietary fiber, whole grain foods, and small intestinal cancer. Gastroenterology. 2008;135:1163–1167
  103. Wakai K, Date C, Fukui M, et al. Dietary fiber and risk of colorectal cancer in the Japan collaborative cohort study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2007;16:668–675
  104. Kabat GC, Shikany JM, Beresford SA, et al. Dietary carbohydrate, glycemic index, and glycemic load in relation to colorectal cancer risk in the Women's Health Initiative. Cancer Causes Control. 2008;19:1291–1298
  105. Dahm CC, Keogh RH, Spencer EA, et al. Dietary fiber and colorectal cancer risk: a nested case–control study using food diaries. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2010;102:614–626
  106. Koushik A, Hunter DJ, Spiegelman D, et al. Fruits and vegetables and ovarian cancer risk in a pooled analysis of 12 cohort studies. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2005;14:2160–2167
  107. Koushik A, Hunter DJ, Spiegelman D, et al. Fruits, vegetables, and colon cancer risk in a pooled analysis of 14 cohort studies. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2007;99:1471–1483
  108. Lee JE, Mannisto S, Spiegelman D, et al. Intakes of fruit, vegetables, and carotenoids and renal cell cancer risk: a pooled analysis of 13 prospective studies. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2009;18:1730–1739
  109. Smith-Warner SA, Spiegelman D, Yaun SS, et al. Intake of fruits and vegetables and risk of breast cancer: a pooled analysis of cohort studies. JAMA. 2001;285:769–776
  110. Smith-Warner SA, Spiegelman D, Yaun SS, et al. Fruits, vegetables and lung cancer: a pooled analysis of cohort studies. Int J Cancer. 2003;107:1001–1011
  111. George SM, Park Y, Leitzmann MF, et al. Fruit and vegetable intake and risk of cancer: a prospective cohort study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;89:347–353
  112. Freedman ND, Park Y, Subar AF, et al. Fruit and vegetable intake and esophageal cancer in a large prospective cohort study. Int J Cancer. 2007;121:2753–2760
  113. Park Y, Subar AF, Kipnis V, et al. Fruit and vegetable intakes and risk of colorectal cancer in the NIH-AARP diet and health study. Am J Epidemiol. 2007;166:170–180
  114. Wright ME, Park Y, Subar AF, et al. Intakes of fruit, vegetables, and specific botanical groups in relation to lung cancer risk in the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study. Am J Epidemiol. 2008;168:1024–1034
  115. Freedman ND, Park Y, Subar AF, et al. Fruit and vegetable intake and head and neck cancer risk in a large United States prospective cohort study. Int J Cancer. 2008;122:2330–2336
  116. Peto R, Doll R, Buckley JD, et al. Can dietary beta-carotene materially reduce human cancer rates?. Nature. 1981;290:201–208
  117. The effect of vitamin E and beta carotene on the incidence of lung cancer and other cancers in male smokers (The Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta Carotene Cancer Prevention Study Group). N Engl J Med. 1994;330:1029–1035
  118. Omenn GS, Goodman GE, Thornquist MD, et al. Effects of a combination of beta carotene and vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 1996;334:1150–1155
  119. Greenwald P. Beta-carotene and lung cancer: a lesson for future chemoprevention investigations?. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2003;95:E1
  120. Palozza P. Prooxidant actions of carotenoids in biologic systems. Nutr Rev. 1998;56:257–265
  121. Mayne ST, Handelman GJ, Beecher G. Beta-Carotene and lung cancer promotion in heavy smokers—a plausible relationship?. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1996;88:1513–1515
  122. Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Manson JE, et al. Lack of effect of long-term supplementation with beta carotene on the incidence of malignant neoplasms and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 1996;334:1145–1149
  123. Lee IM, Cook NR, Manson JE, et al. Beta-carotene supplementation and incidence of cancer and cardiovascular disease: the Women's Health Study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999;91:2102–2106
  124. Mannisto S, Smith-Warner SA, Spiegelman D, et al. Dietary carotenoids and risk of lung cancer in a pooled analysis of seven cohort studies. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2004;13:40–48
  125. Willis MS, Wians FH. The role of nutrition in preventing prostate cancer: a review of the proposed mechanism of action of various dietary substances. Clin Chim Acta. 2003;330:57–83
  126. Gaziano JM, Glynn RJ, Christen WG, et al. Vitamins E and C in the prevention of prostate and total cancer in men: the Physicians' Health Study II randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2009;301:52–62
  127. Virtamo J, Pietinen P, Huttunen JK, et al. Incidence of cancer and mortality following alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene supplementation: a postintervention follow-up. JAMA. 2003;290:476–485
  128. Lee IM, Cook NR, Gaziano JM, et al. Vitamin E in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer: the Women's Health Study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2005;294:56–65
  129. Lonn E, Bosch J, Yusuf S, et al. Effects of long-term vitamin E supplementation on cardiovascular events and cancer: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2005;293:1338–1347
  130. Lippman SM, Klein EA, Goodman PJ, et al. Effect of selenium and vitamin E on risk of prostate cancer and other cancers: the Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial (SELECT). JAMA. 2009;301:39–51
  131. Kline K, Lawson KA, Yu W, et al. Vitamin E and cancer. Vitam Horm. 2007;76:435–461
  132. Clark LC, Combs GF, Turnbull BW, et al. Effects of selenium supplementation for cancer prevention in patients with carcinoma of the skin (A randomized controlled trial. Nutritional Prevention of Cancer Study Group). JAMA. 1996;276:1957–1963
  133. Peters U, Takata Y. Selenium and the prevention of prostate and colorectal cancer. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2008;52:1261–1272
  134. Combs GF, Gray WP. Chemopreventive agents: selenium. Pharmacol Ther. 1998;79:179–192
  135. Menter DG, Sabichi AL, Lippman SM. Selenium effects on prostate cell growth. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2000;9:1171–1182
  136. Venkateswaran V, Klotz LH, Fleshner NE. Selenium modulation of cell proliferation and cell cycle biomarkers in human prostate carcinoma cell lines. Cancer Res. 2002;62:2540–2545
  137. Hurst R, Fairweather-Tait S. Selenium and vitamin E supplementation for cancer prevention. JAMA. 2009;301:1876–1877
  138. Rayman MP, Combs GF, Waters DJ. Selenium and vitamin E supplementation for cancer prevention. JAMA. 2009;301:1876
  139. Schrauzer GN. RE: Lessons from the selenium and vitamin E cancer prevention trial (SELECT). Crit Rev Biotechnol. 2009;29:81
  140. Rayman MP. Selenoproteins and human health: insights from epidemiological data. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2009;1790:1533–1540
  141. Duffield-Lillico AJ, Dalkin BL, Reid ME, et al. Selenium supplementation, baseline plasma selenium status and incidence of prostate cancer: an analysis of the complete treatment period of the Nutritional Prevention of Cancer Trial. BJU Int. 2003;91:608–612
  142. Blot WJ, Li JY, Taylor PR, et al. Nutrition intervention trials in Linxian, China: supplementation with specific vitamin/mineral combinations, cancer incidence, and disease-specific mortality in the general population. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1993;85:1483–1492
  143. Qiao YL, Dawsey SM, Kamangar F, et al. Total and cancer mortality after supplementation with vitamins and minerals: follow-up of the Linxian General Population Nutrition Intervention Trial. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2009;101:507–518
  144. Appleton GV, Davies PW, Bristol JB, et al. Inhibition of intestinal carcinogenesis by dietary supplementation with calcium. Br J Surg. 1987;74:523–525
  145. Buset M, Lipkin M, Winawer S, et al. Inhibition of human colonic epithelial cell proliferation in vivo and in vitro by calcium. Cancer Res. 1986;46:5426–5430
  146. Sitrin MD, Halline AG, Abrahams C, et al. Dietary calcium and vitamin D modulate 1,2-dimethylhydrazine-induced colonic carcinogenesis in the rat. Cancer Res. 1991;51:5608–5613
  147. Newmark HL, Wargovich MJ, Bruce WR. Colon cancer and dietary fat, phosphate, and calcium: a hypothesis. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1984;72:1323–1325
  148. Cho E, Smith-Warner SA, Spiegelman D, et al. Dairy foods, calcium, and colorectal cancer: a pooled analysis of 10 cohort studies. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2004;96:1015–1022
  149. Ishihara J, Inoue M, Iwasaki M, et al. Dietary calcium, vitamin D, and the risk of colorectal cancer. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;88:1576–1583
  150. Larsson SC, Bergkvist L, Rutegard J, et al. Calcium and dairy food intakes are inversely associated with colorectal cancer risk in the Cohort of Swedish Men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;83:667–673
  151. Park SY, Murphy SP, Wilkens LR, et al. Calcium and vitamin D intake and risk of colorectal cancer: the Multiethnic Cohort Study. Am J Epidemiol. 2007;165:784–793
  152. Shin A, Li H, Shu XO, et al. Dietary intake of calcium, fiber and other micronutrients in relation to colorectal cancer risk: results from the Shanghai Women's Health Study. Int J Cancer. 2006;119:2938–2942
  153. Park Y, Leitzmann MF, Subar AF, et al. Dairy food, calcium, and risk of cancer in the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study. Arch Intern Med. 2009;169:391–401
  154. Hartman TJ, Albert PS, Snyder K, et al. The association of calcium and vitamin D with risk of colorectal adenomas. J Nutr. 2005;135:252–259
  155. Kesse E, Boutron-Ruault MC, Norat T, et al. Dietary calcium, phosphorus, vitamin D, dairy products and the risk of colorectal adenoma and cancer among French women of the E3N-EPIC prospective study. Int J Cancer. 2005;117:137–144
  156. Martinez ME, Jacobs ET. Calcium supplementation and prevention of colorectal neoplasia: lessons from clinical trials. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2007;99:99–100
  157. Oh K, Willett WC, Wu K, et al. Calcium and vitamin D intakes in relation to risk of distal colorectal adenoma in women. Am J Epidemiol. 2007;165:1178–1186
  158. Peters U, Chatterjee N, McGlynn KA, et al. Calcium intake and colorectal adenoma in a US colorectal cancer early detection program. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;80:1358–1365
  159. Baron JA, Beach M, Mandel JS, et al. Calcium supplements for the prevention of colorectal adenomas (Calcium Polyp Prevention Study Group). N Engl J Med. 1999;340:101–107
  160. Grau MV, Baron JA, Sandler RS, et al. Prolonged effect of calcium supplementation on risk of colorectal adenomas in a randomized trial. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2007;99:129–136
  161. Grau MV, Baron JA, Sandler RS, et al. Vitamin D, calcium supplementation, and colorectal adenomas: results of a randomized trial. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2003;95:1765–1771
  162. Wallace K, Baron JA, Cole BF, et al. Effect of calcium supplementation on the risk of large bowel polyps. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2004;96:921–925
  163. Wactawski-Wende J, Kotchen JM, Anderson GL, et al. Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:684–696
  164. Rodriguez C, McCullough ML, Mondul AM, et al. Calcium, dairy products, and risk of prostate cancer in a prospective cohort of United States men. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2003;12:597–603
  165. Park SY, Murphy SP, Wilkens LR, et al. Calcium, vitamin D, and dairy product intake and prostate cancer risk: the Multiethnic Cohort Study. Am J Epidemiol. 2007;166:1259–1269
  166. Kushi LH, Byers T, Doyle C, et al. American Cancer Society guidelines on nutrition and physical activity for cancer prevention: reducing the risk of cancer with healthy food choices and physical activity. CA Cancer J Clin. 2006;56:254–281
  167. Ebrahim S, Davey Smith G. Mendelian randomization: can genetic epidemiology help redress the failures of observational epidemiology?. Hum Genet. 2008;123:15–33
  168. Qi L. Mendelian randomization in nutritional epidemiology. Nutr Rev. 2009;67:439–450
  169. Brennan SF, Cantwell MM, Cardwell CR, et al. Dietary patterns and breast cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;91:1294–1302
  170. Buckland G, Agudo A, Lujan L, et al. Adherence to a Mediterranean diet and risk of gastric adenocarcinoma within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) cohort study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;91:381–390
  171. Edefonti V, Bravi F, La Vecchia C, et al. Nutrient-based dietary patterns and the risk of oral and pharyngeal cancer. Oral Oncol. 2010;46:343–348
  172. Reedy J, Wirfalt E, Flood A, et al. Comparing 3 dietary pattern methods—cluster analysis, factor analysis, and index analysis—with colorectal cancer risk: the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study. Am J Epidemiol. 2010;171:479–487

 This research was supported in part by the Intramural Research Program of the National Institutes of Health and the National Cancer Institute and by grant no. TU2-CA-105666.

PII: S0093-7754(10)00076-X

doi: 10.1053/j.seminoncol.2010.05.011

Seminars in Oncology
Volume 37, Issue 3 , Pages 282-296 , June 2010

Article Tools